In addition, analog-to-digital (A/D) and digital-to-analog (D/A) converters built into the audio or computer hardware add to the overall input–output latency. For example, in order to track the speaker's fundamental frequency or formant frequencies-and then manipulate those frequency values prior to outputting the feedback signal-the involved signal processing algorithms require a minimum window length, causing some amount of delay in the feedback output. In reality, however, there will always be an inevitable delay inherent in the audio and/or computer hardware and the signal processing algorithms implemented by those hardware components. Many experiments in this general area of work involve auditory feedback perturbation paradigms in which participants' acoustic speech output is experimentally altered and played back via earphones/headphones “in real time.” In an ideal setup, the perturbed auditory feedback would be provided at the same time as when it is produced. During the last two decades, there has been a strong interest in various aspects of speech production related to auditory–motor interactions and auditory–motor learning (e.g., Cai et al., 2014, 2012 Daliri & Max, 2018 Daliri et al., 2018 Feng et al., 2018 Houde & Jordan, 1998 Keough et al., 2013 Max et al., 2003 Mollaei et al., 2016, 2013 see also Caudrelier & Rochet-Capellan, 2019, for an extensive review).
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